Softpedia-hub for softwares

The Linux Kernel Archives

2009-02-23T23:18:00.001+05:30

The Linux Kernel Archives

Welcome to the Linux Kernel Archives. This is the primary site for the Linux kernel source, but it has much more than just Linux kernels.Frequently Asked Questions


Protocol	Location
HTTP	http://www.kernel.org/pub/
FTP	ftp://ftp.kernel.org/pub/
RSYNC	rsync://rsync.kernel.org/pub/

The latest stable version of the Linux kernel is:	2.6.28.7	2009-02-20 22:48 UTC	F	V	VI	C	Changelog
The latest prepatch for the stable Linux kernel tree is:	2.6.29-rc6	2009-02-23 04:36 UTC	B	V	VI	C	Changelog
The latest 2.4 version of the Linux kernel is:	2.4.37	2008-12-02 08:13 UTC	F	V	VI	C	Changelog
The latest 2.2 version of the Linux kernel is:	2.2.26	2004-02-25 00:28 UTC	F	V			Changelog
The latest prepatch for the 2.2 Linux kernel tree is:	2.2.27-rc2	2005-01-12 23:55 UTC	B	V	VI		Changelog
The latest -mm patch to the stable Linux kernels is:	2.6.28-rc2-mm1	2008-10-29 06:29 UTC		V

Use netstat to See Internet Connections

2009-02-23T23:14:00.000+05:30

Use netstat to See Internet Connections

Using netstat, you can monitor programs that are making connections to remote hosts:

$ netstat -tpe

The -t flag limits the output to show only TCP connections. The -p flag displays the PID and name of the program making the connection. The -e flag displays extra information, such as the user name under which each program is running.

Debian GNU/Linux lenny -- Installation Guide

2009-02-23T23:11:00.000+05:30

Debian GNU/Linux lenny -- Installation Guide

Installation instructions, along with downloadable files, are available for each of the supported architectures:

If you have set your browser's localization properly, you can use the above link to get the right HTML version automatically — see content negotiation. Otherwise, pick the exact architecture, language, and format you want from the table below.

Architecture	Format	Languages
Alpha	HTML	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
	PDF	Catalan Czech English Finnish French German Italian Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian) Russian Spanish Swedish
	plain text	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
AMD64	HTML	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
	PDF	Catalan Czech English Finnish French German Italian Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian) Russian Spanish Swedish
	plain text	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
ARM	HTML	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
	PDF	Catalan Czech English Finnish French German Italian Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian) Russian Spanish Swedish
	plain text	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
HP PA-RISC	HTML	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
	PDF	Catalan Czech English Finnish French German Italian Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian) Russian Spanish Swedish
	plain text	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
Intel x86	HTML	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
	PDF	Catalan Czech English Finnish French German Italian Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian) Russian Spanish Swedish
	plain text	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
Intel IA-64	HTML	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
	PDF	Catalan Czech English Finnish French German Italian Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian) Russian Spanish Swedish
	plain text	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
MIPS (big endian)	HTML	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
	PDF	Catalan Czech English Finnish French German Italian Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian) Russian Spanish Swedish
	plain text	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
MIPS (little endian)	HTML	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
	PDF	Catalan Czech English Finnish French German Italian Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian) Russian Spanish Swedish
	plain text	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
PowerPC	HTML	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
	PDF	Catalan Czech English Finnish French German Italian Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian) Russian Spanish Swedish
	plain text	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
IBM S/390	HTML	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
	PDF	Catalan Czech English Finnish French German Italian Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian) Russian Spanish Swedish
	plain text	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
SPARC	HTML	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish
	PDF	Catalan Czech English Finnish French German Italian Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian) Russian Spanish Swedish
	plain text	Catalan Chinese (China) Czech English Finnish French German Greek Italian Japanese Korean Portuguese Portuguese (Brazilian)Russian Spanish Swedish

Getting Debian

2009-02-23T23:10:00.001+05:30

Getting Debian

Debian GNU/Linux is distributed freely over the Internet. You can download all of it from any of our mirrors.

If you simply want to install Debian, these are your options:

Download a small image file, record it to a CD/DVD/USB disk/floppy, and install using the Internet.
These small netinst images can be downloaded quickly. These allow you to download only those Debian packages that you actually want, but require an Internet connection on the machine being installed.
Download larger CD/DVD image files, record and install using that media only.
The CD/DVD images can be downloaded using HTTP/FTP, BitTorrent, or Jigdo.
The large CD and DVD images contain more packages, making it easier to install machines without an Internet connection. However, if you get a whole set of CDs or DVDs, you will get a lot of packages that you won't actually use.
Buy a set of CDs or DVDs from one of the vendors selling Debian CDs and install from it.
Many of the vendors sell the distribution for less than US$5 plus shipping (check their web page to see if they ship internationally).
Some of the books about Debian come with CDs, too.
Here are the basic advantages of CDs prepared by someone else:
- Installation from a CD set is more straightforward.
- You can install on machines without an Internet connection.
- You can install Debian (on as many machines as you like) without downloading all packages yourself.
- The CD can be used to more easily rescue a damaged Debian system.
Buy a computer with Debian pre-installed.
There are a number of advantages to this:
- You don't have to install Debian.
- The installation is pre-configured to match the hardware.
- The vendor may provide technical support.

How do I get Debian?,Who uses Debian?

2009-02-23T23:09:00.000+05:30

How do I get Debian?

It's most popular to install Debian from a CD which you can buy for the price of the media at one of our many CD vendors. If you have good Internet access, you can download and install Debian over the Internet.

Please see our page about getting Debian for more information.

If you haven't yet, you may want to first look at the Linux Hardware Compatibility HOWTO.

Don't forget to take a look through the packages we offer (hopefully you won't be intimidated by the sheer number).

I can't set it up all by myself. How do I get support for Debian?

You can get help by reading the documentation which is available both on the web site and in packages you can install on your system. You can also contact us via the mailing lists or using IRC. One can even hire a consultant to do the work.

Please see our documentation and support pages for more information.

Who are you all anyway?

Debian is produced by almost a thousand active developers spread around the world who volunteer in their spare time. Few of the developers have actually met in person. Communication is done primarily through e-mail (mailing lists at lists.debian.org) and IRC (#debian channel at irc.debian.org).

The Debian Project has a carefully organized structure. For more information on how Debian looks from the inside, please feel free to browse the developers' corner.

Who uses Debian?

Although no precise statistics are available (since Debian does not require users to register), evidence is quite strong that Debian is used by a wide range of organizations, large and small, as well as many thousands of individuals. See our Who's using Debian? page for a list of high-profile organizations which have submitted short descriptions of how and why they use Debian.

How'd it all get started?

Debian was begun in August 1993 by Ian Murdock, as a new distribution which would be made openly, in the spirit of Linux and GNU. Debian was meant to be carefully and conscientiously put together, and to be maintained and supported with similar care. It started as a small, tightly-knit group of Free Software hackers, and gradually grew to become a large, well-organized community of developers and users. See the detailed history.

Since many people have asked, Debian is pronounced /ˈde.bi.ən/. It comes from the names of the creator of Debian, Ian Murdock, and his wife, Debra.

WHAT is Debian?,What hardware is supported?

2009-02-23T23:06:00.000+05:30

What is Debian?

Debian is a free operating system (OS) for your computer. An operating system is the set of basic programs and utilities that make your computer run. Debian uses the Linux kernel (the core of an operating system), but most of the basic OS tools come from the GNU project; hence the name GNU/Linux.

Debian GNU/Linux provides more than a pure OS: it comes with over 25113 packages, precompiled software bundled up in a nice format for easy installation on your machine.

WHAT is Debian?

The Debian Project is an association of individuals who have made common cause to create a free operating system. This operating system that we have created is called Debian GNU/Linux, or simply Debian for short.

An operating system is the set of basic programs and utilities that make your computer run. At the core of an operating system is the kernel. The kernel is the most fundamental program on the computer and does all the basic housekeeping and lets you start other programs.

Debian systems currently use the Linux kernel. Linux is a piece of software started by Linus Torvalds and supported by thousands of programmers worldwide.

However, work is in progress to provide Debian for other kernels, primarily for the Hurd. The Hurd is a collection of servers that run on top of a microkernel (such as Mach) to implement different features. The Hurd is free software produced by the GNU project.

A large part of the basic tools that fill out the operating system come from the GNU project; hence the names: GNU/Linux and GNU/Hurd. These tools are also free.

Of course, the thing that people want is application software: programs to help them get what they want to do done, from editing documents to running a business to playing games to writing more software. Debian comes with over 25113 packages (precompiled software that is bundled up in a nice format for easy installation on your machine) — all of it free.

It's a bit like a tower. At the base is the kernel. On top of that are all the basic tools. Next is all the software that you run on the computer. At the top of the tower is Debian — carefully organizing and fitting everything so it all works together.

It's all free?

You may be wondering: why would people spend hours of their own time to write software, carefully package it, and then give it all away? The answers are as varied as the people who contribute. Some people like to help others. Many write programs to learn more about computers. More and more people are looking for ways to avoid the inflated price of software. A growing crowd contribute as a thank you for all the great free software they've received from others. Many in academia create free software to help get the results of their research into wider use. Businesses help maintain free software so they can have a say in how it develops -- there's no quicker way to get a new feature than to implement it yourself! Of course, a lot of us just find it great fun.

Debian is so committed to free software that we thought it would be useful if that commitment was formalized in a written document. Thus, our Social Contract was born.

Although Debian believes in free software, there are cases where people want or need to put non-free software on their machine. Whenever possible Debian will support this. There are even a growing number of packages whose sole job is to install non-free software into a Debian system.

You say free, but the CDs/bandwidth cost money!

You might be asking: If the software is free, then why do I have to pay a vendor for a CD, or pay an ISP for downloading?

When buying a CD, you are paying for someone's time, capital outlay to make the disks, and risk (in case they don't sell them all). In other words, you are paying for a physical medium used to deliver the software, not for the software itself.

When we use the word "free", we are referring to software freedom, not that it's without cost. You can read more on what we mean by "free software" and what the Free Software Foundation says on that subject.

Most software costs over 100 US dollars. How can you give it away?

A better question is how do software companies get away with charging so much? Software is not like making a car. Once you've made one copy of your software, the production costs to make a million more are tiny (there's a good reason Microsoft has so many billions in the bank).

Look at it another way: if you had an endless supply of sand in your backyard, you might be willing to give sand away. It would be foolish, though, to pay for a truck to take it to others. You would make them come and get it themselves (equivalent to downloading off the net) or they can pay someone else to deliver it to their door (equivalent to buying a CD). This is exactly how Debian operates and why most of the CDs/DVDs are so cheap (only about 12 USD for 4 DVDs).

Debian does not make any money from the sale of CDs. At the same time, money is needed to pay for expenses such as domain registration and hardware. Thus, we ask that you buy from one of the CD vendors that donates a portion of your purchase to Debian.

What hardware is supported?

Debian will run on almost all personal computers, including most older models. Each new release of Debian generally supports a larger number of computer architectures. For a complete list of currently supported ones, see the documentation for the stable release.

Almost all common hardware is supported. If you would like to be sure that all the devices connected to your machine are supported, check out the Linux Hardware Compatibility HOWTO.

There are a few companies that make support difficult by not releasing specifications for their hardware. This means you might not be able to use their hardware with GNU/Linux. Some companies provide non-free drivers, but that is a problem because the company could later go out of business or stop support for the hardware you have. We recommend that you only purchase hardware from manufacturers that provide free drivers for their products.

I'm looking for more information.

You may want to check out our FAQ.

I'm still not convinced.

Don't take our word for it - try Debian yourself. Since hard disk space has become less expensive, you can probably spare about 2GB. If you don't want or need a graphical desktop, 600MB are sufficient. Debian can be easily installed on this extra space and can coexist with your existing OS. If you eventually need more space, you can simply delete one of your OSes (and after you see the power of a Debian system, we are confident you won't delete Debian).

As trying a new operating system will take some of your valuable time, it is understandable that you may have reservations. For this reason we compiled a list of pros and cons of Debian. This should help you decide whether you think it's worth it. We hope you'll appreciate our honesty and frankness.

Market share and uptake,Copyright and naming,GNU/Linux

2009-02-23T23:04:00.000+05:30

Market share and uptake

Main article: Linux adoption

Many quantitative studies of free / open source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.^[52] The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux is expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.^[53]

IDC's report for Q1 2007 says that Linux now holds 12.7% of the overall server market.^[54] This estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies. Although, with web servers that do not belong to companies, i.e. personal web servers and blog sites, the percentage of overall market share is higher than that of the Microsoft web server.^{[citation needed]}

Estimates for the desktop market share of Linux range from less than one percent to almost two percent. In comparison, Microsoft operating systems hold more than 90%.^[55]^[56]^[57]^[58]^[59]^[60]^[61]

The frictional cost of switching operating systems and lack of support for certain hardware and application programs designed for Microsoft Windows have been two factors that have inhibited adoption. Proponents and analysts attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability,^[62] low cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in.^[63]

Also most recently Google has begun to fund Wine, which acts as a compatibility layer, allowing users to run some Windows programs under Linux.^[64]^[65]

The XO laptop project of One Laptop Per Child is creating a new and potentially much larger Linux community, planned to reach several hundred million schoolchildren and their families and communities in developing countries.^[66] Six countries have ordered a million or more units each for delivery in 2007 to distribute to schoolchildren at no charge. Google, Red Hat, and eBay are major supporters of the project.^[67] While the XO will also have a Windows option, it will be primarily deployed using Red Hat Enterprise Linux.

See also: Usage share of desktop operating systems and List of Linux computers

[edit]Copyright and naming

The Linux kernel and most GNU software are licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL). The GPL requires that anyone who distributes the Linux kernel must make the source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms. In 1997, Linus Torvalds stated, “Making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did.”^[68] Other key components of a Linux system may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X Window Systemuses the MIT License.

Torvalds has publicly stated that he would not move the Linux kernel (currently licensed under GPL version 2) to version 3 of the GPL, released in mid-2007, specifically citing some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in digital rights management.^[69]^[70]

A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million source lines of code. Using the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost about 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 U.S. dollars) to develop in the United States.^[71]

Most of the code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including C++, assembly language,Perl, Python, Fortran, and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.^[71]

In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian GNU/Linux version 4.0.^[72] This distribution contained over 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost 5.4 billion euros to develop by conventional means.

In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.^[73] Initially, nobody registered it, but on 15 August 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and in 1997 the case was settled.^[74] The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux Mark Institute. Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from using it, but was bound in 2005 by United States trademark law to take active measures to enforce the trademark. As a result, the LMI sent letters to distribution vendors requesting that a fee be paid for the use of the name, and a number of companies have complied.^[75]

See also: SCO-Linux controversies

GNU/Linux

Main article: GNU/Linux naming controversy

The Free Software Foundation views Linux distributions which use GNU software as GNU variants and they ask that such operating systems be referred to as GNU/Linux or a Linux-based GNU system.^[76] The media and common usage, however, refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux, as do many large Linux distributions (e.g. Ubuntu and SuSE Linux). Some distributions use GNU/Linux (particularly notable isDebian GNU/Linux), but the term's use outside of the enthusiast community is limited. The naming issue remains a source of confusion to many newcomers, and the naming remains controversial. Linus Torvalds is against the GNU/Linux naming, stating that Linux is not a GNU project.^[77]

Desktop,Servers and supercomputers

2009-02-23T23:03:00.002+05:30

Desktop

Ubuntu: one of the most popular Linux distributions.

Main article: Desktop Linux

Although there is a lack of Linux ports for some Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows programs in domains such as desktop publishing^[37] and professional audio,^[38]^[39]^[40] support for common applications roughly equivalent to those available for Mac and Windows is available for Linux.^[41]

Most Linux distributions provide a program for browsing a list of thousands of free software applications that have already been tested and configured for a specific distribution. These free programs can be downloaded and installed with one mouse click. A digital signature guarantees that no one has added a virus or a spyware to these programs.

Many free software titles that are popular on Windows, such as Pidgin, Mozilla Firefox, OpenOffice.org, and GIMP, are also available in versions that run on Linux. A growing amount of proprietary desktop software is also supported,^[42] see List of proprietary software for Linux. In the field of animation and visual effects, most high end software, such as AutoDesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake, is available for Linux, Windows and/or Mac OS X. CrossOver is a proprietary solution based on the open source Wine project that supports running Windows versions of Microsoft Office, Intuit applications such as Quicken and QuickBooks, Adobe Photoshop versions through CS2, and many popular games such as World of Warcraft and Team Fortress 2.

Besides the free Windows compatibility layer Wine, most distributions offer dual boot and x86 virtualization for running both Linux and Windows on the same computer. According to the Wine developers, "Wine is still under development, and it is not yet suitable for general use."^[43]

The collaborative nature of free software development allows distributed teams to localize Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For example the Sinhalese language version of the Knoppix distribution was available for a long time before Microsoft Windows XP was translated to Sinhalese. In this case the Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, linguists, and local developers.

The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic; for example, Con Kolivas accused the Linux community of favoring performance on servers. He quit Linux kernel development because he was frustrated with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a "tell all" interview on the topic.^[44]

See also: Linux gaming

[edit]Servers and supercomputers

Servers designed for Linux

Historically, Linux distributions have mainly been used as server operating systems, and have risen to prominence in that area; Netcraft reported in September 2006 that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies ran Linux distributions on their web servers.^[45] (As of June 2008, Linux distributions represented five of ten, FreeBSD three of ten, and Microsoft two of ten.^[46]) This is due to its relative stability and long uptime, and the fact that desktop software with a graphical user interface for servers is often unneeded. Enterprise and non-enterprise Linux distributions may be found running on servers. Linux distributions are the cornerstone of the LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache, MySQL,Perl/PHP/Python) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting. Linux distributions are commonly used as operating systems forsupercomputers. As of August 2008, out of the top 500 systems, 423 (84.6%) run a Linux distribution.^[47]

[edit]Embedded devices

See also: Embedded Linux and Linux devices

Sharp Zaurus SL-5500 runningOpenZaurus and OPIE, with docking cradle and stylus

Due to its low cost and ability to be easily modified, an embedded Linux is often used in embedded systems. Linux has become a major competitor to the proprietary Symbian OS found in the majority of smartphones—16.7% of smartphones sold worldwide during 2006 were using Linux^[48]—and it is an alternative to the proprietary Windows CE and Palm OS operating systems on mobile devices. Cell phones or PDAs running on Linux and built on open source platform became a trend from 2007, like Nokia N810,Openmoko's Neo1973, Motorola RAZR2 v8, Motorola ROKR E8, Motorola MING series, Motorola ZINE and the on-going Google Android. The popular TiVo digital video recorder uses a customized version of Linux.^[49]Several network firewall and router standalone products, including several from Linksys, use Linux internally, using its advanced firewall and routing capabilities. The Korg OASYS and the Yamaha Motif XS music workstations also run Linux.^[50] Furthermore, Linux is used in the leading stage lighting control system, FlyingPig/HighEnd WholeHogIII Console.^[51]

Programming on Linux,Uses

2009-02-23T23:03:00.001+05:30

Programming on Linux

Most Linux distributions support dozens of programming languages. The most common collection of utilities for building both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Java, and Fortran. The Linux kernel itself is written to be compiled with GCC. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++ Compiler and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler.

Most distributions also include support for Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. Examples of languages that are less common, but still well-supported, are C# via the Mono project, sponsored by Novell, and Scheme. A number of Java Virtual Machines and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like Kaffe.

The two main frameworks for developing graphical applications are those of GNOME and KDE. These projects are based on the GTK+ and Qt widget toolkits, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of Integrated development environments available including Anjuta, Code::Blocks, Eclipse, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop,NetBeans, and Omnis Studio while the long-established editors Vim and Emacs remain popular.^[34]

[edit]Uses

As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including:computer architecture support, embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for real-time applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only free software. Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.^[35]

Linux is a widely ported operating system kernel. The Linux kernel runs on the most diverse range of computer architectures: in the hand-heldARM-based iPAQ and the mainframe IBM System z9, in devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers.^[36] Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the µClinuxkernel fork may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers (with both PowerPC and Intel processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones.

Development,Community

2009-02-23T23:01:00.002+05:30

Development

Main article: Linux distribution

A summarized history of Unix-likeoperating systems showing Linux's origins. Note that despite similar architectural designs and concepts being shared as part of the POSIX standard, Linux does not share any non-free source code with the originalUnix or Minix.

The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is the best-known and most widely used. Some free and open source software licences are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the GNU GPL, is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU project.

As an operating system underdog competing with mainstream operating systems, Linux based distributions cannot rely on a monopoly advantage; in order for distributions to be convenient for users, developers aim for interoperability with other operating systems and established computing standards. Linux systems adhere to POSIX,^[29] SUS,^[30] ISO and ANSI standards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.^[31]

Free software projects, although developed in a collaborative fashion, are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a Linux distribution.

A Linux distribution, commonly called a “distro”, is a project that manages a remote collection of system software and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connection. This allows the user to adapt the operating system to his/her specific needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution can be installed using a CD that contains distribution-specific software for initial system installation and configuration. A package manager such as Synaptic allows later package upgrades and installs. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole.

[edit]Community

See also: Free software community and Linux Users Group

A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis,Debian being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with Fedora.

In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux Users Groups (LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many Internet communities also provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open source projects have IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples being LinuxQuestions.organd the Gentoo forums. Linux distributions host mailing lists; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.

There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Print magazines on Linux often include cover disks including software or even complete Linux distributions.^[32]^[33]

Although Linux distributions are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and contribute to the development of the components of the system and of free software. These include Dell, IBM, Gliese IT, HP, Oracle, Sun Microsystems, Novell, Nokia. A number of corporations, notably Red Hat and Gliese IT, have built their entire business around Linux distributions.

The free software licenses, on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks. Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware

Design,User interface

2009-02-23T23:01:00.001+05:30

Design

Main components of Linux operating system

A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system. It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, and peripheral and file system access. Device drivers are integrated directly with the kernel.

Separate projects that interface with the kernel provide much of the system's higher-level functionality. The GNU userland is an important part of most Linux-based systems, providing the most common implementation of the C library, a popular shell, and many of the common Unix tools which carry out many basic operating system tasks. The graphical user interface on most Linux systems is based on the X Window System.

[edit]User interface

See also: User interface

A Linux-based system can be controlled by one or more of a text-based command line interface (CLI), graphical user interface (GUI) (usually the default for desktop), or through controls on the device itself (common on embedded machines).

On desktop machines, KDE, GNOME and Xfce are the most popular user interfaces,^[28] though a variety of other user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces run on top of the X Window System (X), which provides network transparency, enabling a graphical application running on one machine to be displayed and controlled from another.

Other GUIs include X window managers such as FVWM, Enlightenment and Window Maker. The window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X window system.

A Linux system typically provides a CLI of some sort through a shell, which is the traditional way of interacting with a Unix system. A Linux distribution specialized for servers may use the CLI as its only interface. A “headless system” run without even a monitor can be controlled by the command line via a remote-control protocol such as SSH or telnet.

Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU Userland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple inter-process communication. A graphical terminal emulator program is often used to access the CLI from a Linux desktop.

MINIX,Commercial and popular uptake,Current development

2009-02-23T23:00:00.001+05:30

MINIX

Further information: Tanenbaum-Torvalds debate

MINIX, a Unix-like system intended for academic use, was released by Andrew S. Tanenbaum in 1987. While source code for the system was available, modification and redistribution were restricted (that is not the case today). In addition, MINIX's 16-bit design was not well adapted to the 32-bit design of the increasingly cheap and popular Intel 386 architecture for personal computers.

In 1991 while attending the University of Helsinki, Torvalds began to work on a non-commercial replacement for MINIX,^[10] which would eventually become the Linux kernel. In 1992, Tanenbaum posted an article on Usenet claiming Linux was obsolete. In the article, he criticized the operating system as being monolithic in design and being tied closely to the x86 architecture and thus not portable, as he described "a fundamental error."^[11] Tanenbaum suggested that those who wanted a modern operating system should look into one based on the microkernelmodel. The posting elicited the response of Torvalds, which resulted in a well known debate over the microkernel and monolithic kernel designs.^[11]

Linux was dependent on the MINIX user space at first. With code from the GNU system freely available, it was advantageous if this could be used with the fledgling OS. Code licensed under the GNU GPL can be used in other projects, so long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. In order to make the Linux kernel compatible with the components from the GNU Project, Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license (which prohibited commercial redistribution) to the GNU GPL.^[12] Developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to make a fully functional and free operating system.^[8]

[edit]Commercial and popular uptake

Main article: Linux adoption

Today Linux distributions are used in numerous domains, from embedded systems to supercomputers,^[13]^[14] and have secured a place inserver installations with the popular LAMP application stack.^[15] Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been rapidly expanding and now claims a significant share of the desktop market.^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22] They have also gained in popularity with governments such that the governments have decided to use them in their computers. The federal government of Brazil is well known for its support for Linux.^[23]^[24] News of the Russian military creating their own Linux distribution has, also, surfaced.^[25] India has gone so far as to make it mandatory for all state high schools to run Linux on their computers.^[26] China, France, and Germany have also taken steps in its adoption.^[27]

Linux distributions have also become popular with the newly founded netbook market, with many devices such as the ASUS Eee PC and Acer Aspire One shipping with customized Linux distributions pre-installed.

[edit]Current development

Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel. Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in turn supports the GNU components. Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries. Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux distributions.

Linux founderer

2009-02-23T22:59:00.000+05:30

Linux

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about operating systems that use the Linux kernel. For the kernel itself, see Linux kernel. For other uses, see Linux (disambiguation).

Linux

OS family	Unix-like
Working state	Current
Latest stable release	2.6.28.7 (February 20, 2009) _[+/−]
Latest unstable release	2.6.29-rc5-git3 (Feb 19, 2009) _[+/−]
Supported platforms	x86, MIPS, SPARC, DEC Alpha,Itanium, PowerPC, ARM, m68k,PA-RISC, s390, SuperH, M32Rand more
Kerneltype	Monolithic kernel
License	Components released under GNU General Public License and others


Richard Stallman, left, founder of the GNU project, and Linus Torvalds, right, creator of the Linux kernel

Linux (commonly pronounced IPA: /ˈlɪnəks/ in English; variants exist^[1]) is a generic term referring to Unix-like computer operating systems based on the Linux kernel. Their development is one of the most prominent examples of free and open source software collaboration; typically all the underlying source code can be used, freely modified, and redistributed by anyone under the terms of the GNU GPL^[2] and other free licenses.

Linux distributions are predominantly known for their use in servers, although they are installed on a wide variety of computer hardware, ranging from embedded devices and mobile phones tosupercomputers,^[3] and their popularity as a desktop/laptop operating system has been growing lately due to the rise of netbooks and the Ubuntu distribution of the operating system.^[4]^[5]

The name "Linux" comes from the Linux kernel, originally written in 1991 by Linus Torvalds. The rest of the system, including utilities and libraries, usually comes from the GNU operating system announced in 1983 by Richard Stallman. The GNU contribution is the basis for the alternative nameGNU/Linux.^[6]

[edit]History

See also: History of Linux

The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in the 1960s and first released in 1970. Its wide availability and portability meant that it was widely adopted, copied and modified by academic institutions and businesses, with its design being influential on authors of other systems.

The GNU Project, started in 1984 by Richard Stallman, had the goal of creating a "complete Unix-compatible software system"^[7] made entirely of free software. The next year Stallman created the Free Software Foundation and wrote the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system (such as libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell, and a windowing system) were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete.^[8] Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time (1991), he would not have decided to write his own.^[9]

What is Linux

2009-02-23T22:57:00.000+05:30

What is Linux

Note: You may want to start with our FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions) to see answers to some of the most common queries we get about Linux. If you're thinking about switching to Linux, you may want to read How to Become a Successful Linux User . Also, the page: So You Want to Use Linux? provides some more information about Linux migration.

Linux is an operating system that was initially created as a hobby by a young student, Linus Torvalds, at the University of Helsinki in Finland. Linus had an interest in Minix, a small UNIX system, and decided to develop a system that exceeded the Minix standards. He began his work in 1991 when he released version 0.02 and worked steadily until 1994 when version 1.0 of the Linux Kernel was released. The kernel, at the heart of all Linux systems, is developed and released under the GNU General Public License and its source code is freely available to everyone. It is this kernel that forms the base around which a Linux operating system is developed. There are now literally hundreds of companies and organizations and an equal number of individuals that have released their own versions of operating systems based on the Linux kernel. More information on the kernel can be found at our sister site, LinuxHQ and at the official Linux Kernel Archives. The current full-featured version is 2.6 (released December 2003) and development continues.

Apart from the fact that it's freely distributed, Linux's functionality, adaptability and robustness, has made it the main alternative for proprietary Unix and Microsoft operating systems. IBM, Hewlett-Packard and other giants of the computing world have embraced Linux and support its ongoing development. Well into its second decade of existence, Linux has been adopted worldwide primarily as a server platform. Its use as a home and office desktop operating system is also on the rise. The operating system can also be incorporated directly into microchips in a process called "embedding" and is increasingly being used this way in appliances and devices.

Throughout most of the 1990's, tech pundits, largely unaware of Linux's potential, dismissed it as a computerhobbyist project, unsuitable for the general public's computing needs. Through the efforts of developers of desktop management systems such as KDE and GNOME, office suite project OpenOffice.org and the Mozilla webbrowser project, to name only a few, there are now a wide range of applications that run on Linux and it can be used by anyone regardless of his/her knowledge of computers. Those curious to see the capabilities of Linux can download a live CD version called Knoppix . It comes with everything you might need to carry out day-to-day tasks on the computer and it needs no installation. It will run from a CD in a computer capable of booting from the CD drive. Those choosing to continue using Linux can find a variety of versions or "distributions" of Linux that are easy to install, configure and use. Information on these products is available in our distribution section and can be found by selecting the mainstream/general public category.

Additional Information

If you're interested in learning about Linux, need help with some aspect of its use or are enthusiastic about it and want to help foster its adoption, you may want to get in touch with a Linux User Group in your area. There are groups in practically every country, region and city in the world, so there is likely to be one near you.

Each day, Linux use is increasing in every sector of our society. We have information about Linux deployments ingovernment, industry and the arts.

Linux has an official mascot, Tux, the Linux penguin, which was selected by Linus Torvalds to represent the image he associates with the operating system. Tux was created by Larry Ewing and Larry has generously given it to the community to be freely used to promote Linux. More information on use of the image can be found on hiswebpage. More links to variations on the image and alternative logos can be found on our logo page

Many people are not sure of the pronunciation of the word Linux. Although many variations of the word exist, often due to native language factors, it is normally pronounced with a short " i " and with the first syllable stressed, as in LIH-nucks. You can hear how Linux creator Linus Torvalds pronounces the word in Swedish and in English.

More information on Linus Torvalds, can be found on our short biography page.

If you're interested in the history of Linux, we have a timeline page that features important milestones in the development of the operating system.

Windows 7 Sessions At WinHEC and PDC Conferences

2009-02-23T22:49:00.000+05:30

Windows 7 Sessions At WinHEC and PDC Conferences

The updated agendas for the PDC and WinHEC conferences taking place this fall include a large number of sessions covering the Windows 7 operating system.

Windows 7 made its appearance on the session list of WinHec 2008, the Windows Hardware Engineering Conference taking place in early November. The conference will cover the Windows 7 operating system extensively, and the sessions will be guidelines to designing hardware that takes advantage of the newtechnologies implemented in Windows 7.

Windows 7 can also be found on the agenda of the PDC 2008 conference that takes place from October 27 to 30, as the official website of the conference (MicrosoftPDC.com) puts it: "you can expect a lot more on Windows 7."

Five different sessions will cover Windows 7 at PDC: "Windows 7: Web Services in Native Code", " Extending Battery Life with Energy Efficient Applications", "Windows 7: Touch Computing", "Writing Your Application to Shine on Modern Graphics Hardware", "Developing for Microsoft Surface."

The WinHec conference has the following sessions this year:

Connected PCs and Devices

Audio Design for Unified Communications
Building a Communication Device in Windows 7
Building a Windows Certified Electronic Picture Frame
Common Driver Installation Errors and How to Diagnose Them
Design Considerations for Building a Windows Home Server
Discussion: Windows Home Server
PC and Device IDs in Windows 7: What You Need to Know
Plug and Play Basics
Printer Driver Development Tools and Print Verifier
USB Technology Update and Windows Strategy
Windows 7 Device Experience Overview
Windows 7 Logo Program and Design Considerations for Network Infrastructure Devices
Windows Connect Now for Wireless Devices
Windows Logo for Network Media Devices and the Role of DLNA
Windows SideShow: Building Better Devices and PCs
Core Platform & Fundamentals

Core Platform & Fundamentals

Distributing Drivers on Windows Update
Leveraging Solid-State Drives in Windows
Making Drivers Available on Windows
Network Power Management Fundamentals
New Developments in the Storage Platform
System Integrated Flash Storage
UEFI Industry Momentum: The AMD Perspective
Windows 7 Power Management Overview
Windows Logo Program Future Strategy
Enterprise Computing

Enterprise Computing

BitLocker: Protecting Portable Data in Windows
Directions for Virtualized I/O in Windows
IPv6: Deploying the Foundation for Tomorrow
Microsoft Data Center Transformation
New Windows Server Logo Requirements and Programs
Server and Domain Isolation: The Next Generation for Network Security
Understanding the Performance Cost of Power Optimizations
Windows Presentation Virtualization
Windows Server Power Management Overview
Windows Virtualization and Cluster Shared Volumes
High Fidelity Graphics and Media

High Fidelity Graphics and Media

DirectX: Core Graphics for Windows 7
Discussion: Windows Media Center
Display and Monitor Technologies
Perspectives on the Windows TV Tuners Ecosystem
Video Improvements in Windows 7
Windows 7 Logo Program for TV Tuners and Remotes
Working with the Windows 7 Graphics Architecture
Mobile Computing

Mobile Computing

Connecting Projectors and Using Docking Stations with Windows 7
Multi-touch Designing and Testing for Logo Compliance
Multi-touch Driver Development
Multi-touch in Windows 7 Overview

Windows 7 Boot Times And Performance

2009-02-23T22:48:00.000+05:30

Windows 7 Boot Times And Performance

The Windows 7 team is taking the performance of the new operating system seriously, at the request of its consumers. The blog discusses what Microsoft is doing to achieve a new level of performance.

The Engineering Windows 7 blog has recognized the interest of Windows consumers in the improved performance of the new operating system, and two new posts have been dedicated to covering the subject.

According to the blog, the Windows 7 teams are constantly watching the memory usage, CPU usage, disk operations, boot, shutdown, standby and resume time, among other metrics. They are also working on improving device driver performance, network performance and boot performance. A very fast boot would be 15 seconds or less, and the Windows team is working towards getting more systems to achieve that performance with Windows 7 - while keeping in mind that obviously the hardware plays an important factor.

The measurements are done on a wide range of hardware platforms, with various amounts of RAM, hard-disks and solid-state disks, 32 bit and 64 bit processors. The Windows operating system also uses conditional statements that target different code depending on the available hardware.

Furthermore, the Fundamentals Team's primary objective is to improve the performance of Windows 7 and Internet Explorer 8. Aside from that, a single team of developers has been assigned the task of increasing the boot performance of the operating system. Tests are being done in a benchmark lab that allow to track and compare different versions of the Windows 7 code.

Softpedia-hub for softwares

The Linux Kernel Archives

The Linux Kernel Archives

Use netstat to See Internet Connections

Use netstat to See Internet Connections

Using netstat, you can monitor programs that are making connections to remote hosts:

Debian GNU/Linux lenny -- Installation Guide

Debian GNU/Linux lenny -- Installation Guide

Getting Debian

Getting Debian

How do I get Debian?,Who uses Debian?

WHAT is Debian?,What hardware is supported?

What is Debian?

It's all free?

Market share and uptake,Copyright and naming,GNU/Linux

Market share and uptake

[edit]Copyright and naming

GNU/Linux

Desktop,Servers and supercomputers

Desktop

[edit]Servers and supercomputers

[edit]Embedded devices

Programming on Linux,Uses

Programming on Linux

[edit]Uses

Development,Community

Development

[edit]Community

Design,User interface

Design

[edit]User interface

MINIX,Commercial and popular uptake,Current development

MINIX

[edit]Commercial and popular uptake

[edit]Current development

Linux founderer

Linux

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Contents

[edit]History

What is Linux

Additional Information

Windows 7 Sessions At WinHEC and PDC Conferences

Windows 7 Sessions At WinHEC and PDC Conferences

Connected PCs and Devices

Core Platform & Fundamentals

Enterprise Computing

High Fidelity Graphics and Media

Mobile Computing

Windows 7 Boot Times And Performance

Windows 7 Boot Times And Performance